Occidental Dissent

1909

Founding of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). (Schuman, et al. 54)

1910-1930

“Great Migration” of negroes to the North. (Gilmore, 17

1910

Founding of the Urban League (NUL). (Schuman et al, 54)

The NAACP launches its monthly magazine, The Crisis. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 14)

1912

Hispanics in New Mexico finally receive full citizenship after admission to the Union. Texas restricts the right to own land to members of the white race. (Howe, 810)

Woodrow Wilson Administration, 1913-1921

In the Wilson administration’s first congressional session “there were no less than twenty bills advocating ‘Jim Crow’ cars in the District of Columbia, race segregation of Federal employees, excluding negroes from commissions in the army and navy, forbidding the intermarriage of negroes and whites, and excluding all immigrants of Negro descent. (Gilmore, 18)

President Wilson issues an executive order segregating the federal government’s operations in Washington. (Gilmore, 18)

1915

Lynching of Leo Frank in Georgia. (Gilmore, 197)

1917-1918, First World War (U.S. involvement)

1917

Houston race riot. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 15)

U.S. buys the Virgin Islands from Denmark. (Nugent, 281)

U.S. Army officials try to force the French to segregate troops on the basis of race. (Gilmore, 18)

1919

Twenty-six full-fledged race riots. (Gilmore, 18)

Founding of Commission on Interracial Cooperation. (Gilmore, 19)

1921-1923, Warren Harding Administration

1921

Tulsa race riot.

1923-1929, Calvin Coolidge Administration

1925-1935

American Communists alone arguing for complete equality of the races. (Gilmore, 4)

1929-1933, Herbert Hoover Administration

1931

Scottsboro Boys trial. (Gilmore, 118)

1933-1945, Franklin Delano Roosevelt Administration

1933

NAACP begins its legal campaign to desegregate education. (Gilmore, 2)

1934

Tydings-McDuffie Act promises independence to the Philippines, strips Filipinos of citizenship, and caps immigration at 50 per year. (Nugent, 273)

1935-1950

A domestic ideal of racial tolerance, necessitated by the demands of fighting fascism, becomes the “American way.” (Gilmore, 3)

1935

A repatriation act is passed that pays Filipinos their passage back home on condition they never return. (Nugent, 273)

1936

Opening prayer at the Democratic National Convention delivered by a negro. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 26)

Samuel Dickstein’s (Jew) House of Un-American Activities Committee becomes a permanent feature of Congress. (Gilmore, 171)

1938

The American Anthropological Association unanimously passes a resolution condemning racism. (Gilmore, 199)

The Carnegie Corporation commissions Swedish economist Gunnar Myrdal to write a comprehensive study of American race relations. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 4)

Gunnar Myrdal arrives in the U.S. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 4)

Gaines v. Canada.

1941-1945, Second World War (U.S. involvement)

1941

A. Philip Randolph threatens a March on Washington. President Roosevelt issues Executive Order banning discrimination in defense industries. (Schuman et al, 54)

1942

Founding of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). (Schuman et al, 54)

1943

Major race riot in Detroit. (Schuman et al, 54)

An American Dilemma becomes the cornerstone of the later Brown v. Board of Education ruling. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 6)

1944

Harry McAlpin becomes the first negro admitted to a White House press conference. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 34)

1945-1953, Harry Truman Administration

1947

President Truman’s Committee on Civil Rights issues its 178-page report, “To Secure These Rights.” The report calls for laws requiring states to end discrimination in education, mandating a ban against discrimination in the armed services, laws to guarantee fair employment practices for blacks, federal prohibition of lynching, repeal of poll taxes and other discriminatory voting restrictions, denial of federal grants when discrimination in evidence, an expanded civil rights division at the Justice Department, creation of permanent civil rights commissions at the federal and state levels, specific federal ban on police brutality, and enforcement of a Supreme Court decision against restrictive real estate covenants. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 38)

Jackie Robinson joins the Brooklyn Dodgers, breaking the color line in baseball. (Schuman et al, 54)

1948

President Truman introduces civil rights legislation and issues Executive Orders concerning fair treatment in federal employment and desegregation of the military. (Schuman et al, 54)

U.N. Declaration on Human Rights declares, “No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all forms.” (Davis, xvi)

Democratic Party splits after the adoption of a strong civil rights plank at its national convention. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 40)

1950

Sweatt v. Painter, Supreme Court rules that when considering segregated graduate education, “intangibles” must be considered part of “substantive equality.” (Roberts and Klibanoff, 49)

McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents, Supreme Court rules that an institution of higher education could not provide different treatment to a student on the basis of race. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 49)

Henderson v. United States, Supreme Court abolishes racial segregation in railroad dining cars. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 49)

1953-1961, Dwight Eisenhower Administration

1953

Earl Warren becomes chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 42)

1954

Brown v. Board of Education ruling declares “separate but equal” schooling unconstitutional. (Schuman et al, 54)

Founding of the Citizens’ Councils in Mississippi. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 66)

1955

Brown II, Supreme Court renders its decision on the implementation of Brown. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 71)

Emmett Till, a fourteen-year-old black native of Chicago, is kidnapped and murdered while visiting family in Mississippi for whistling at a white woman. Two men are arrested for his murder, but are later acquitted, sparking a national controversy and widespread coverage by the white Northern press. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 87)

Massive resistance, a segregationist strategy to reduce integration, is outlined on the editorial pages of the Richmond News Leader on November 21, 1955. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 109)

NAACP activist Rosa Park is arrested in Montgomery, AL for violating a city ordinance and Alabama state law by refusing to give up her seat on a municipal bus to a white man. Her decision inspired the later Montgomery Bus Boycott which lasted for 381 days. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 109)

1956

Montgomery, Alabama, bus boycott begun in 1955 ends after 381 days, drawing national and international attention, and propels Martin Luther King, Jr., to the forefront of the civil rights crusade. (Schuman et al, 54)

By the end of 1956, eleven southern states had enacted 106 pro-segegation laws. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 118)

Alabama legislature rules that the U.S. Supreme Court has no standing to force the desegregation of public schools. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 128)

Integration of the University of North Carolina. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 133)

NAACP barred from the State of Alabama (Roberts and Klibanoff, 141)

U.S. Supreme Court rules that the racial segregation of Montgomery buses is unconstitutional. (Roberts and Klibanoff, 141)

1957

Founding of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). (Schuman et al, 54)

Clash in Little Rock, Arkansas, over the desegregation of Central High School. President Eisenhower dispatches federal troops to keep order and enforce desegregation. (Schuman et al, 54)

Passage of Civil Rights Act of 1957, first federal civil rights legislation since Reconstruction. (Schuman et al, 54)

1959

Alaska admitted to the Union.

1960

Lunchcounter sit-ins by black college students in Greensboro, North Carolina. (Schuman et al, 54)

Founding of Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). (Schuman et al, 54)

1961-1963, John F. Kennedy Administration

1961

Freedom Rides. President Kennedy sends federal marshals to protect demonstrators. (Schuman et al, 54)

1962

James Meredith’s attempt to enroll at the University of Mississippi meets violent resistance. President Kennedy dispatches army troops to maintain order and allow Meredith to enroll. (Schuman et al, 54)

1963

Mass demonstrations in Birmingham, Alabama, protesting segregation of public accomodations and job discrimination. (Schuman et al, 54)

Black students attempt to enroll at the University of Alabama. Governor Wallace engages in symbolic defiance, standing “in the schoolhouse door.” (Schuman et al, 54)

March on Washington. More than 250,000 people gather at the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, where King delivers his “I have a dream” speech. (Schuman et al, 54)

1964

Murders of James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, and Michael Schwerner. (Schuman et al, 54)

Passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. (Schuman et al, 54)

Martin Luther King receives Nobel Peace Prize. (Schuman et al, 54)

Lyndon Johnson elected president, defeating Barry Goldwater. (Schuman et al, 55)

1965

Mass demonstrations in Selma, Alabama, protesting voting hindrances against blacks. (Schuman et al, 55)

Passage of Voting Rights Act of 1965. (Schuman et al, 55)

Watts Riot, worst racial outburst since 1943. (Schuman et al, 55)

President Johnson issues Executive Order that fosters affirmative action. (Schuman et al, 55)

1966

Stokely Carmichael first uses “Black Power” slogan. (Schuman et al, 55)

Founding of the Black Panther Party. (Schuman et al, 55)

1967

Rioting in Newark, Detroit, Milwaukee, and other major urban areas. (Schuman et al, 55)

Carl Stokes elected mayor of Cleveland, first black mayor of a major city. (Schuman et al, 55)

Thurgood Marshall becomes first black Supreme Court Justice. (Schuman et al, 55)

1968

Kerner Commission releases its report on riots, identifying deeply embedded “racism” as main cause. (Schuman et al, 55)

Martin Luther King, Jr., assassinated by James Earl Ray; rioting in many cities. (Schuman et al, 55)

Passage of Civil Rights Act of 1968, prohibiting discrimination in the sale or rental of housing. (Schuman et al, 55)

Poor People’s March on Washington. (Schuman et al, 55)

Richard Nixon elected president, defeating Hubert Humphrey. (Schuman et al, 55)

1970

Extension of the Voting Rights Act. (Schuman et al, 55)

1971

Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg ruling allows busing for desegregation. (Schuman et al, 55)

1972

President Nixon calls for a moratorium on court-ordered busing. (Schuman et al, 55)

1973

Keyes v. Denver ruling opens the way for court-ordered busing in the North. (Schuman et al, 55)

Tom Bradley elected mayor of Los Angeles. (Schuman et al, 55)

1978

Bakke ruling disallows quotas at U.C. Davis Medical School but affirms potential for preferential treatment. (Schuman et al, 55)

1980

Ronald Reagan elected president. (Schuman et al, 55)

1982

Twenty-five-year extension of the Voting Rights Act. (Schuman et al, 55)

1983

Harold Washington elected first black mayor of Chicago. (Schuman et al, 55)

1984

Rev. Jesse Jackson wages the first major campaign by a black candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination. (Schuman et al, 55)

Ronald Reagan reelected president in greatest Republican landslide in history. (Schuman et al, 55)

1986

First official observation of Martin Luther King Day. (Schuman et al, 55)

U.S. Congress overrides President Reagan’s veto, joining other nations in economic sanctions against South Africa to end apartheid. (Schuman et al, 55)

1989-1993, George H.W. Bush Administration

1989

Colin Powell nominated by President Bush as chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff. (Schuman et al, 55)

Douglas Wilder elected governor of Virginia; David Dinkins elected mayor of New York City. (Schuman et al, 55)

1990

President Bush vetoes a civil rights bill that sought to reverse Supreme Court decisions weakening discrimination laws on hiring and promoting. (Schuman et al, 55)

1991

Thurgood Marshall retires from Supreme Court. (Schuman et al, 56)

U.S. Senate approves nomination of Clarence Thomas to Supreme Court. (Schuman et al, 56)

Videotape of beating of Rodney King shown repeatedly on national television. (Schuman et al, 56)

1992

All-white jury acquits four policemen on most counts of beating Rodney King, and Los Angeles is swept by rioting and looting, with 52 lives lost. (Schuman et al, 56)

Bill Clinton elected president. (Schuman et al, 56)

Carol Moseley Braun first black woman elected to U.S. Senate. (Schuman et al, 56)

1993-2001, Bill Clinton Administration

1993

Nobel Prize for Literature awarded to Toni Morrison. (Schuman et al, 56)

Supreme Court disallows congressional districts drawn to produce black majorities. (Schuman et al, 56)

1994

Byron de La Beckwith, a white supremacist, convicted of 1963 murder of civil rights activist Medgar Evers in Mississippi. (Schuman et al, 56)

1995

Year-long murder trial of O.J. Simpson ends with acquittal, with widely different reactions from blacks and whites. (Schuman et al, 56)

Colin Powell shows great strength in polls as a potential presidential candidate. (Schuman et al, 56)

Million Man March in Washington, led by Louis Farrakhan. (Schuman et al, 56)

1996

Bill Clinton reelected president.

Taped meeting of Texaco executives planning to impede lawsuit on discrimination; followed by steps by Texaco chairman to show good faith in improving opportunities for minorities. (Schuman et al, 56)

Several black congressmen from previously black majority districts in South win reelection from new white majority districts. (Schuman et al, 56)

Referendum to end affirmative action passes in California: 54% to 46%. (Schuman et al, 56)

Controversy over possible addition of “multiracial” category to Census. (Schuman et al, 56)

Controversy over role of Ebonics in teaching black children. (Schuman et al, 56)

1997

Civil trial of O.J. Simpson ends with unanimous verdict that preponderance of evidence shows defendant responsible for deaths of N. Brown and R. Goldman. Racial divide remains after verdict, accentuated by radically different racial composition of the two juries. (Schuman et al, 56)

2000

Wichita Massacre, gruesome murder of several whites by Reginald and Jonathan Carr.

2001-2009, George W. Bush administration

2002

Beltway sniper attacks by John Lee Malvo and John Allen Muhammad.

2005

Hurricane Katrina strikes New Orleans, racial chaos ensues.

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David Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006)

Michael W. Fitzgerald, Splendid Failure: Postwar Reconstruction in the American South (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2007)

Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Defying Dixie: The Radical Roots of Civil Rights, 1919-1950 (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2008)

Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815-1848 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007)

Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Williamsburg: University of North Carolina Press, 1968)

Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (Basic Books, 2001)

Walter Nugent, Habits of Empire: A History of American Expansion (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008)